In psychology, attitude is the psychological construct, the inherent mental and emotional entity, or the person's traits. They are complex and gained through experience. It is an individual state of mind that tends to value and is deposited through responsive expressions of a person, place, object, or event ( attitude object ) which in turn affects individual thoughts and actions. Leading psychologist Gordon Allport described this latent psychological construct as "the most distinct and indispensable concept in contemporary social psychology." Attitudes can be shaped from one's past and past. Key topics in the study of attitudes include attitudinal strength, attitude change, consumer behavior, and behavior-behavioral relationships.
Video Attitude (psychology)
Definition
Social psychology
Attitude is the evaluation of attitude objects, ranging from very negative to very positive. The most contemporary perspective on attitudes also makes it possible that people can also be conflicted or ambivalent to an object by simultaneously holding both positive and negative attitudes toward the same object. This has led to some discussion about whether an individual can have many attitudes toward the same object.
Attitudes can be a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, events, activities, and ideas. It can be concrete, abstract or just about anything in your environment, but there is a debate about the exact definition. Eagly and Chaiken, for example, define an attitude as "a psychological tendency expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of kindness or dislike." Although it is sometimes common to define attitudes as influences on an object, affecting (ie, discrete emotions or overall passion) is generally understood as the evaluative structure used to form attitude objects. Attitudes can affect attention to attitude objects, the use of categories for information encoding and interpretation, assessment and recall of attitude related information. These influences tend to be stronger for strong attitudes that can be accessed and based on complex supporting knowledge structures. The resilience and influence of influence depends on the strength that is formed from the heuristic consistency. Attitudes can guide the encoding of information, attention and behavior, even if the individual pursues an unrelated goal.
Definition Jung
Attitude is one of Jung's definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types . Jung's definition of attitude is "the readiness of the soul to act or react in a certain way". Attitudes very often come in pairs, one conscious and the other unconscious. In this broad definition Jung defines some attitudes.
The duality of the main (but not only) attitude that Jung defines is as follows.
- Awareness and unconsciousness. "The presence of two attitudes is very frequent, one conscious and the other unconscious.This means that consciousness has a different content constellation of the subconscious consciousness, the very clear duality in neurosis".
- Extraversion and introversion. This couple is very basic to Jung's type theory which he labeled "type-attitude".
- Rational and irrational attitude. "I consider the reason as attitude".
- Rational attitude is divided into thoughts and feelings of psychological functions, each with its attitude.
- Irrational attitudes divide into psychological functions of sensing and intuition, each with its attitude. "Thus there are distinctive thoughts, feelings, sensations, and intuitive attitudes."
- Individual and social attitudes. Many of the latter are "isms".
In addition, Jung discusses abstract attitudes. "When I take an abstract attitude...". Abstraction is contrasted with creationism "CREATIONISM" By this I mean the weirdness of thought and feeling that is the antithesis of abstraction ".
Maps Attitude (psychology)
Factor
Psychological
A person's attitude is determined by psychological factors such as ideas, values, beliefs, perceptions, etc. All of these have a complex role in determining one's attitude. Values ​​are ideals, guiding principles in one's life, or the overarching goals that people strive for (Maio & Olson, 1998). Confidence is the cognition of the subjective probability of the world that an object has a certain attribute or that an action will lead to a certain result (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Confidence can be clearly and unambiguously wrong. For example, surveys show that one-third of adults in the US think that vaccines cause autism, although there are many conflicting scientific studies (Dixon et al., 2015). It was found that such beliefs are strongly defended and highly resistant to change. Another important factor that affects attitudes is symbolic interactionism, it is filled with powerful symbols and charged with influences that can lead to selective perception. The persuasion theory says that in politics, successful persuaders convince the recipients of their messages into selective perceptions or attitude polarization to turn against opposing candidates through repeated processes that they are in a state of no commitment and that is unacceptable and has no moral basis for and for this they just need to choke the persuasive message into a plausible realm (Gopnik, 2015 & O'Keefe, 2016).
Family
The family plays an important role in the main stages of the attitude held by the individual. Initially, a person develops a certain attitude from his parents, brothers, sisters, and parents in the family. There is a high degree of relationship between parents and children in the attitude found in it.
Society
Society plays an important role in formatting individual attitudes. Culture, tradition, language, etc., influencing one's attitude. Society, tradition, and culture teach individuals what they are and what is unacceptable.
Economy
A person's attitude also depends on issues such as salary, status, work environment, work, etc.
Structure
The classic tripartite view offered by Rosenberg and Hovland is that an attitude contains cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. Empirical research, however, fails to support a clear distinction between thoughts, emotions, and behavioral intentions associated with certain attitudes. The critique of the tripartite view of attitude is that it requires cognitive, affective, and behavioral associations of attitude to be consistent, but this may not make sense. Thus some views of attitude structure see the cognitive and behavioral components as derivatives of influence or influence and behavior as derivatives of the underlying beliefs.
Despite the debate about the structure of certain attitudes, there is sufficient evidence that attitudes reflect more than the evaluation of certain objects that vary from positive to negative. Among the many attitudes, one example is the attitude of money people who can help people understand their affective love about money motives, stewardship behavior, and cognition of money. ABC's components of this attitude formulate, define, and contribute to the overall formation of Monetary Intelligence which, in turn, may be related to many theoretical constructs.
There is also a great interest in intra-attitude and inter-attitude structures, which is how attitudes are made (expectations and values) and how different attitudes relate to one another. It connects different attitudes to each other and the more basic psychological structures, such as values ​​or ideologies.
Attitude component model
An influential attitude model is a multicomponent model, where attitude is an evaluation of an object that has an affective, behavioral, and cognitive component (ABC model):
- Affective components The affective component of attitudes to your feelings or emotions is related to attitude objects. Affective responses affect attitudes in several ways. For example, many people fear/fear with spiders. So this negative affective response may cause you to have a negative attitude toward the spider.
- Behavioral components Behavioral components of behavior refer to previous behaviors or experiences of attitude objects. The idea that people might conclude their attitude from previous actions.
- Cognitive components The cognitive component of attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes we will associate with an object. Often a person's attitude may be based on the negative and positive attributes they associate with the object.
model MODE
This is the theory of attitude evaluation ( m otivation and o pportunity as de terminants of the attitude - behavior relation. When both are present, the behavior will be intentional. When a person is absent, impact on behavior will be spontaneous. The MODE model was developed by Fazio. A person's attitude can be measured in two different ways:
- Explicit size
- Implicit size
Explicit measures are attitudes at the conscious level, which are deliberately formed and easy to self-report. An implicit measure is an attitude that is at the unconscious level, which is formed by accident and is usually unknown to us. Explicit and implicit attitudes can shape individual behavior. An implicit attitude, however, will most likely affect behavior when the demands are steep and the individual feels stressed or disturbed.
Function
Another classical view of attitude is that the attitude of serving certain functions for the individual. That is, researchers have tried to understand why individuals hold particular attitudes or why they hold a general attitude by considering how attitudes affect the individuals who hold them. Daniel Katz, for example, writes that attitudes can serve "instrumental, adjustive or utilitarian," "ego-defensive," "value-expressive," or "knowledge" functions. This functional attitude theory suggests that in order for attitudes to change (eg, through persuasion), requests must be made for the functions (s) that certain attitudes work for the individual. For example, the "ego-defense" function may be used to influence the attitudes of racial prejudice from an individual who sees themselves as open-minded and tolerant. By appealing to the individual image itself as tolerant and open-minded, it is possible to change their prejudices to be more consistent with their self-concept. Similarly, persuasive messages that threaten self-image are far more likely to be rejected.
Daniel Katz classifies the various attitudes into four different groups based on their function
- Utilitarian : gives us a general approach or evasion tendencies
- Knowledge : helps people organize and interpret new information
- Ego-defensive : attitudes can help people protect their self-esteem
- Value-expressive : used to express primary values ​​or beliefs
Utilitarian People adopt a helpful attitude and that help them avoid punishment. In other words, any attitudes adopted in one's personal interests are considered to serve a utilitarian function. Let's say you own a condo, people with condominiums pay property taxes, and as a result you do not want to pay more taxes. If these factors lead to your attitude that "a bad property tax increase", your attitude serves a utilitarian function.
Knowledge People need to maintain an organized, meaningful, and stable world view. It's said important values ​​and general principles can provide a framework for our knowledge. Attitudes achieve this goal by making everything fit and reasonable. Example:
- I believe that I am a good person.
- I believe that good things happen to good people.
- Something bad happened to Bob.
- So, I'm sure Bob is not a good person.
Ego-Defensive This function involves the psychoanalytic principle in which people use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from psychological harm. Mechanisms include:
- Disclaimer
- Repression
- Projection
- Rationalization
The ego-defensive idea correlates well with the Theory of Comparison Downwards which holds the view that weakening other disadvantaged people improves our own subjective well-being. We are more likely to use self-defense when we suffer from frustration or misfortune.
Value-Express
- Works to express one's central values ​​and self-concept.
- Central values ​​tend to shape our identity and gain social agreement, thus showing who we are, and what we stand for.
An example would involve an attitude towards a controversial political issue.
Formation
According to Doob (1947), learning can explain most of the attitudes we hold. The study of attitude formation is the study of how people shape an evaluation of people, places or objects. Theories of classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning and social learning are primarily responsible for the formation of attitudes. Unlike personality, attitude is expected to change as a function of experience. In addition, exposure to the 'attitude' object may have an effect on how a person shapes his attitude. This concept is seen as "Exposure-Exposure Effect". Robert Zajonc points out that people are more likely to have a positive attitude on 'attitude objects' when they often expose them than if they were not. Repeated individual exposure to the stimulus is a sufficient condition for the improvement of his attitude toward him. Tesser (1993) argues that hereditary variables can influence attitudes - but believe they can do it indirectly. For example, the theory of consistency, which implies that we must be consistent in our beliefs and values. As with any type of heritability, to determine whether certain traits have a basis in our genes, twin studies are used. The best known example of such a theory is the Dissonance reduction theory, associated with Leon Festinger, which explains that when components of an attitude (including beliefs and behaviors) are contradictory, the individual can adjust one to match the other (for example, adjusting beliefs to match behavior). Other theories including the theory of equilibrium, originally proposed by Heider (1958), and the theory of self-perception, were originally proposed by Daryl Bem.
Change
Attitudes can be changed through persuasion and the important domain of research on attitude changes focusing on responses to communication. Experimental research into factors that can influence message persuasion include:
- Target Characteristics: These are characteristics that refer to the person receiving and processing the message. One such trait is intelligence - it seems that a smarter person is less easily persuaded by a one-sided message. The other variables that have been studied in this category are self-esteem. Although it is sometimes assumed that those higher in self-esteem are less easily persuaded, there is some evidence that the relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility is actually curvilinear, with people of moderate self-esteem being more easily persuaded than their high and low price levels self (Rhodes & Woods, 1992). The target's frame of mind and mood also play a role in this process.
- Source characteristics: The main source characteristics are interpersonal skills or charms, beliefs, and appeal. The credibility of the perceived message has been found to be a key variable here; if someone reads a report on health and believes it comes from a professional medical journal, people may be more easily persuaded than if the believer came from a popular newspaper. Some psychologists have debated whether this is a long-term effect and Hovland and Weiss (1951) found the effect of telling people that messages came from reliable sources that disappeared after a few weeks (so-called "sleep effects"). Is there a controversial sleep effect? The perceived wisdom is that if people are notified of the source of the message before hearing it, there is less chance of sleep effects than if they were notified and then told the source.
- Message Characteristics: The nature of messages plays a role in persuasion. Sometimes present both sides of the story is useful to help change attitudes. When people are not motivated to process messages, only the number of arguments presented in a persuasive message will affect a change of attitude, so that more arguments will result in larger attitude changes.
- Cognitive route: A message may appeal to an individual's cognitive evaluation to help change attitudes. In the central route for individual persuasion is presented with data and motivated to evaluate data and arrive at a changing attitude change. In the peripheral route to change attitudes, individuals are encouraged not to see the content but at the source. This is commonly seen in modern advertisements featuring celebrities. In some cases, doctors, doctors, or experts are used. In other cases movie stars are used to their attraction.
Emotion and attitude changes
Emotions are a common component of persuasion, social influence, and attitude change. Many attitudinal studies emphasize the importance of affective or emotional components. Emotions work in tandem with the cognitive process, or the way we think, about a problem or situation. Emotional appeal is usually found in ads, health campaigns, and political messages. Recent examples include non-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising that stress terrorism fears. Attitudes and attitude objects are a function of the cognitive, affective and conative components. Attitudes are part of the associative network of the brain, spiderlike structures that are in long-term memory consisting of affective and cognitive nodes.
By activating affective or emotional nodes, attitude changes may be possible, although affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined. In particularly affective tissues, it is more difficult to produce cognitive comparisons in resistance to persuasion and attitude change.
Affective forecasting, otherwise known as intuition or emotional prediction, also influences attitude changes. Research shows that predicting emotions is an important component of decision making, in addition to cognitive processes. How we feel about a result can rule out purely cognitive reasons.
In terms of research methodology, the challenge for researchers is to measure emotions and subsequent impact on attitudes. Since we can not see into the brain, models and gauges have been built to gain emotional information and attitudes. The size may include the use of physiological cues such as facial expressions, vocal changes, and other body sizes. For example, fear is associated with raised eyebrows, increased heart rate and increased body tension (Dillard, 1994). Other methods include concept or network mapping, and use primes or words in that era.
Emotional attraction components
Any discrete emotion can be used in persuasive appeal; This may include jealousy, disgust, anger, fear, blue, disturbed, haunted, and angry. Fear is one of the most studied emotional appeals in communication and social influence research.
Important consequences of appealing other fears and emotional appeals include the possibility of reactance that may lead to denial of messages or source rejection and no change in attitudes. As EPPM shows, there is an optimal level of emotion in motivating attitude changes. If there is not enough motivation, the attitude will not change; if emotional appeal is excessive, motivation can be paralyzed to prevent a change of attitude.
Emotions that are perceived as negative or containing threats are often learned more than positive feelings such as humor. Although the inner workings of humor are not agreed upon, the attraction of humor can work by creating a discrepancy in the mind. Recent research has seen the impact of humor on processing political messages. While the evidence can not be inferred, there appears to be potential for a change in targeted attitudes that are recipients with low political involvement messages.
Important factors affecting the impact of emotional attractiveness include self efficacy, attitude accessibility, issue engagement, and message/source features. Self-efficacy is the perception of one's own human agency; in other words, it is the perception of our own ability to deal with a situation. This is an important variable in emotional attraction messages because it dictates a person's ability to deal with emotions and situations. For example, if a person is not efficacious about his ability to influence the global environment, they will not change their attitudes or behavior about global warming.
Dillard (1994) states that messaging features such as non-verbal communication sources, message content, and recipient differences can influence the emotional impact of the appeal of fear. Message characteristics are important because one message can create different emotional levels for different people. So, in terms of emotional attraction messages, one size does not fit all.
Accessibility refers to the activation of an attitude from memory in other words, how easily an attitude about an object, a problem, or a situation. Problem involvement is the relevance and significance of the problem or situation for an individual. Problem involvement has been correlated with attitude access and attitude strength. Previous studies have concluded that accessible attitudes are more resilient to change.
Behavior-behavioral
The effect of attitudes on behavior is a growing research firm in psychology. Icek Ajzen has led the research and helped develop two prominent theoretical approaches in this field: the theory of groundless action and its theoretical descent, the theory of planned behavior. Both theories help explain the relationship between attitude and behavior as a controlled and deliberative process.
Theory of reasoned acts
Grounded action theory (TRA) is a model for predicting behavioral intent, including attitude prediction and behavioral prediction. The subsequent separation of behavioral intentions of behavior allows for an explanation of limiting factors on the influence of attitudes (Ajzen, 1980). The theory of reasoned action developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (1975, 1980), derives from previous studies that began as a theory of attitude, leading to the study of attitudes and behavior. This theory "was born largely out of frustration with the study of traditional behaviors, many of which found a weak correlation between attitude size and behavioral performance of the will" (Hale, Householder & Greene, 2003, p 259).
The planned behavior theory
The proposed behavioral theory was proposed by Icek Ajzen in 1985 through his article "From the intention to act: A theory of planned behavior." This theory was developed from the theory of reasoned action, proposed by Martin Fishbein along with Icek Ajzen in 1975. The theory of reasoned action is in turn based on various theories of attitude such as learning theory, the theory of expected values, consistency theory, and attribution theory. According to the theory of reasoned action, if people evaluate proposed behaviors as positive (attitudes), and if they think others are important they want them to behave (subjective norms), this results in higher intentions (motivation) and they are more likely to do. The high correlation between subjective attitudes and norms with behavioral intentions, and then behavior, has been confirmed in many studies. The planned behavioral theory contains the same components as the reasoned theory of action, but adds a perceived behavior control component to account for obstacles beyond its own control.
Motivation and Opportunity as Determinant (MODE)
Russell H. Fazio proposed an alternative theory called "Motivation and Opportunity as Determinants" or MODE. Fazio believes that because there is a deliberative process happening, individuals must be motivated to reflect on their attitudes and subsequent behavior. Simply put, when an attitude is activated automatically, individuals must be motivated to avoid making invalid judgments and have the opportunity to reflect on their attitudes and behaviors.
A counter-argument against the high correlation between actual behavioral and behavioral intentions has also been proposed, as the results of some studies show that, due to indirect limitations, behavioral intentions do not necessarily lead to actual behavior. That is, since behavioral intentions can not be the determinants of exclusive behavior in which individual control over behavior is incomplete, Ajzen introduces a theory of planned behavior by adding new components, "perceived behavior control." With this, he expanded the theory of reasoned action to mask non-will behavior to predict behavioral intentions and actual behavior.
Measurement
In 1928 Louis Leon Thurstone published an article entitled "Measurable Attitude" in which he proposed a complex procedure for assessing people's views on social issues. Attitude can be difficult to measure because the measurement is arbitrary, because attitude is essentially a hypothetical construct that can not be observed directly.
But many measurements and scale of evidence have proven to be used to check attitudes. The Likert scale taps a deal or disagreement with a series of assertions. Guttman's scale focuses on items that vary in the degree of psychological difficulty. Semantic differential uses bipolar adjectives to measure meanings associated with attitude objects. Complementing these are some indirect techniques such as unobtrusive, physiological standards, and neuroscientific actions. Following the explicit-implicit dichotomy, attitudes can be examined through direct and indirect action.
Whether the attitude is explicit (ie, intentionally formed) versus the implicit (ie, the subconscious) has become a considerable research topic. Research on implicit attitudes, which are not generally acknowledged or out of consciousness, use sophisticated methods involving the response time of people to stimuli to show that implicit attitudes exist (possibly along with the explicit attitudes of the same object). Implicit and explicit attitudes seem to affect people's behavior, albeit in different ways. They tend not to be very related to each other, though in some cases they are. The relationship between them is poorly understood.
Explicit
Explicit measures tend to rely on self-reports or easily observable behavior. This tends to involve a bipolar scale (eg, good-bad, profitable-unprofitable, support-resistant, etc.). An explicit measure can also be used by measuring attribution characteristics directly to the nomination group. The explicit attitude that develops in response to current information, automatic evaluation is thought to reflect mental associations through early socialization experiences. Once established, the association is very strong and resistant to change, as well as stable in both context and time. Therefore the impact of contextual influences is considered to obscure one's "true" judgment and endure the evaluative disposition and limit the capacity to predict subsequent behavior. Likert scale and other self-reports are also commonly used.
Implicit
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