Clothing in ancient Rome generally consisted of knee-high or sleeveless tunics, for men and boys, and longer-arm tunics for women and girls. On official occasions, adult males can wear a woolen toga, cover their tunics, and marry a citizen woman dressed in a woolen mantle, known as a palla, on a stole, simple, long-sleeved, thick garment that hangs in the middle. Clothing, footwear and equipment identify gender, status, rank and social class, and thereby offer a means of social control. This may be most evident in the separation of seats in public theater, games and festivals, and in official magistar, priestly and military clothing.
Toga is considered a "national costume" of Rome but for everyday activities, most Romans prefer a more casual, practical and comfortable outfit; tunics, in various forms, are basic clothes for all classes, both sexes and most jobs. It is usually made of linen, and added as necessary with underwear, or with different types of cold or wet clothing, such as men's knees, and coats, coats and hats. In the colder part of the empire, full pants are worn. Most urban Romans wear shoes, sandals, boots or sandals of various kinds; in the countryside, some wear clogs.
Most clothes are simple in basic structure and shape, and their production requires minimal cutting and sewing, but all are produced by hand and each process requires skill, knowledge, and time. Spinning and weaving is considered a virtuous and thrifty job for Roman women of all classes. Rich capitals, including Augustus's wife Livia, may show their traditional value by producing home clothes, but most men and women who can afford them buy clothes from specialized craftsmen. With regard to the overall cost of basic living, even simple clothing is expensive, and recycled many times on a social scale.
The elite government of Rome produced laws designed to limit the public display of personal wealth and luxury. Nothing works, because the same rich elite has a taste for luxurious and fashionable clothes. Exotic fabrics are available for a certain price; damask sutras, translucent screenings, gold fabrics, and intricate embroidery; and expensive and living dyes such as yellow saffron or Tyrian purple. Not all dyes are expensive, and most Romans wear colorful clothing. Clean and bright clothes are a sign of honor and status among all social classes. Bindings and brooches used to secure clothing such as robes provide further opportunities for decoration and personal appearance.
Video Clothing in ancient Rome
Tunics and underwear
The basic outfit for both sexes and all classes is tunica (tunic). In its simplest form, the tunic is a rectangular woven fabric, originally wool, but from the mid-republic and beyond, increasingly made of linen. It was sewn into a sleeveless tubular shape and pinned around the shoulders like a Greek chiton, to form openings for the neck and arms. In some instances of the eastern part of the empire, the opening of the neck is formed in weaving. Arms can be added. Most men who work in knee and short-sleeved tunics are secured at the waist with belts. Some traditionalists consider long-sleeved tunics to be suitable only for women, very long tunics in men as a sign of satureness, and short or sleepless tunics as signs of frivolity; nevertheless, the very long tunic of his arms, loose, also fashionable louche and adopted by some Roman men; for example, by Julius Caesar. Female tunics are usually ankle or long legs, long arms, and can be worn loose or belted. For comfort and protection from cold, both sexes may wear soft tops or subucula vests beneath a coarser over-tunic; in winter, Emperor Augustus, whose physical and constitution was never strong, wore up to four tunics, on a vest. Although basically simple in basic design, tunics can also be luxurious in their fabrics, colors and details.
Maggots, known as subligacula or subligaria can be worn under the tunic. They can also be used alone, especially by slaves engaged in hot, sweaty or dirty jobs. The women wear loincloths and strophium (breastplate) under their tunics; and some wearing underwear that is tailored for work or leisure. A 4th century AD Sicillian mosaic shows some "bikini girls" performing athletic feats; in 1953, the base of a Roman leather bikini was dug from a well in London.
Maps Clothing in ancient Rome
Formal dress for citizens
Roman society is considered to be a number of citizens and classes of non-citizens and rank, ruled by a strong minority of rich people and landlords who become landlords. Even the lowest value of citizenship brings certain privileges that are denied to non-citizens, such as the right to vote for representation in government. In tradition and law, where a person in a hierarchy of citizens - or outside - must be immediately visible in their clothing. The seating arrangements in the theater and games uphold this idealized social order, with varying degrees of success.
In literature and poetry, the Romans were the gens togata ("togate race"), the descendants of a hard-working, virile, and noble peasant of a hard-working man and women who wear toga. The origin of the toga is uncertain; this may begin as simple work clothes and blankets for farmers and shepherds. This ended up being a formal dress for male citizens; at the same time, respectable female citizens adopted stole . Moral, citizens' wealth and reputation are subject to official oversight. Male males who fail to meet minimum standards may be demoted, and denied the right to wear a toga; in the same way, women can be rejected stole. Respected citizens of both sexes may thus be distinguished from liberated persons, aliens, slaves and famous people.
Toga
Basic, unadorned toga virilis ("toga of manhood") is a semi-elliptical, white cloth with a width of about 6 feet and a length of 12 feet, wrapped around the shoulders and around the body, on linen plain white. Ordinary people toga virilis are naturally white; senator's version is more productive, and brighter. The praetexta toga curule and some priesthoods add a broad purple edge, and are worn over the tunic with two vertical purple lines. It can also be worn by the boys and girls of nobles and men, and represents their protection under civil and divine law. Equites uses short ("torest" or "horseback" or purple-red, or both) on a white tunic with two vertical stripes of purple-red narrow stripes, line. The toga pulla , used for mourning, made of dark wool. The rare, prestigious toga picta and tunica palmata are completely purple, save for their golden embroidery; they were originally given to the Roman general for their victory day, and then used by emperors and consuls of the Empire.
At least since the end of the Republic, the upper classes prefer a longer and larger togas, which is increasingly unsuitable for physically active physical or leisure work. Togas are expensive, heavy, hot and sweaty, difficult to clean, expensive to wash and challenging to wear, and when worn properly, restricted in both posture and gait; the toga is best suited for magnificent processions, speeches, sit in theater or circus, and present themselves in front of peers and subordinates while "doing nothing" at greetings . Earlier this morning, official "speech sessions" were an important part of Roman life, where clients attended their customers, competing for help or investing in business ventures. A well-dressed, well-dressed client - in his toga, if a citizen - shows respect for himself and his patron, and perhaps stands out amongst the crowd. A clever patron can equip all his family, his friends, free people, even his slaves, in elegant, expensive and impractical clothing, which implies the whole condition of his extended family as one of the "honorable pleasures" (otium) , supported by unlimited wealth.
Most people have to work to earn a living, and avoid using toga whenever possible. Some emperors tried to impose its use as a general outfit of Romanity but nothing succeeded. Aristocracy attached to it as a sign of their prestige, but eventually left it for a more comfortable and practical pallium.
Stola and palla
In addition to tunics, married female women wear simple clothes known as stoles (pl. Stolae) linked to the virtues of traditional Roman women. Stolae usually consists of two segments of rectangular fabric that are joined together by the fibulae and buttons in a way that allows the garment to hang freely on the front of the wearer.
During the stole, women often wear palla, a kind of rectangular shawl up to 11 feet long, and five wide. Can be worn as a coat, or draped over the left shoulder, under the right arm, and then over the left arm. No noble woman is naked in public, so palla can also serve as a hooded cloak. Two ancient literary sources mention the use of strips or colored edges (a limbus ) on the women's "coat", or at the tip of their tunic; perhaps a mark of their higher status, and perhaps purple. The combination of stoles and pallas identifies the wearer as an honorable woman, not humiliated or belittled, and certainly not available for sexual predation. In contrast, some Roman literary sources have been interpreted as evidence that high caste women are convicted of adultery, and high-profile female prostitutes (humbling), not only prohibits the public use of the stole but are expected to wear a toga as a sign of ugliness they.
Freedmen and freedwomen
For residents, salutation means wearing a toga according to their rank. For the liberated person, that means any clothing that expresses their status and wealth; a man should like what he sees, and a low ranking is not a bar to make money. Apart from the usual arrogance and ridicule of their social bosses, some freedmen and freedwomen are highly cultured and have good connections. Most freedmen become clients of their former masters, and can share their personal connections and business. Those with a talent for business can accumulate wealth; and many do. They can serve as protectors, magnificent houses, and "clothes to impress".
Under the Roman dress code, the only particular condition imposed on the free man is negative; they are explicitly prohibited from wearing any toga. The elite weapons ridiculed the aspirations of the free-going rich men, who bravely scorned this prohibition, and wore the toga, or even trabea of ​​equites, to insert themselves as equals in among them. their social bosses in games and theaters. If detected, they are expelled from their seats.
Children and teenagers
Roman babies are usually lulled. Apart from some of these people, usually formal attire that is reserved for adults, most children wear a reduced version of what their parents wear. Girls often wear long tunics that reach the legs or the legs, waist at waist and very simply decorated, most often white. Outside the house, they may wear another robe over it. The boy's tunic is shorter.
Boys and girls wear amulets to protect them from immoral or bad influences such as evil eyes and sexual predation. For boys, the talisman is bulla , worn around the neck; the equivalent for girls is a crescent-shaped lunula. The toga praetexta, supposedly offering the same apotropaic protection, is a formal dress for boys born free until puberty, usually around the age of 14, when they give toga praetexta and a childhood bulla into the care of their family's belongings and wearing the toga virilis man . According to some Roman literary sources, freeborn girls may also be wearing - or at least, having the right to wear - preethnica toga until marriage, when they offer their childhood toys, and perhaps their girl praetexta to Fortuna Virginalis ; others claimed gifts given to the Lares family, or to Venus, as part of their journey to maturity. In a traditionalist family, unmarried girls may be expected to wear their naturally bound hairs with fillets.
Despite efforts to protect the virtues of Roman girls, there is little anecdotal or artistic evidence of their use or effective imposition. Some unmarried daughters of a respectable family seem to enjoy dating and striking clothes, jewelry, perfume and make-up; and some parents, who want to find the best and richest partner for their daughter, seem to have pushed it.
Footwear
Rome uses a variety of practical and decorative footwear, all flat (without heels). Outdoor shoes are often made for grip and durability. The most common type of footwear is a one piece shoe ( carbatina ), sometimes with a semi-part bottom: usually sole-soled sandals ( solea ), secured by string: soft laced boots ( soccus ): thick walking shoes, thick soles ( calcea ): and heavy duty, unappealing military standards marching boot ( caliga ). The thick-soled wooden clogs, with the top of the skin, are available for use in wet weather, and by rustic and field slaves
Shoemakers use sophisticated ropes and fine cuts to create intricate decorative patterns. In the room, the richest Romans of both sexes wear slippers or light shoes of leather or leather. The brides on their wedding day may have been wearing soft shoes or bright orange sandals ( lutei socci ).
Public protocols require red ankle shoes for senators, and shoes with crescent shaped buckles for equity, though some wear Greek-style sandals to "go with the crowd". Expensive footwear is a sign of wealth or status, but it really does not take root need not be a sign of poverty. The younger Cato shows the impeccable morality of the Republic by going barefoot; many images of Roman gods, and later, the statues of Augustus, were lifeless.
Clothing in shoes reflects changes in social conditions. For example, during the unstable middle of the imperial era, the military was openly favored as the real power base; around this time, the so-called "Galia sandals" - up to 4 inches wide on the toes - developed as outerwear for men and boys, reminiscent of a military boot. Meanwhile, footwear is open for women, young girls and children remain elegant pointing to toes.
Military costume
For the most part, ordinary soldiers seem to have been wearing tunics, knee buds to work or relax. In the northern province, traditional short-sleeved tunics may be replaced with warmer and longer-sleeved versions. Soldiers in active duty wear shorts under military skirts, sometimes with jinn of leather or pads to protect their armor, and a triangular scarf tucked in the neck. For additional protection from wind and weather, they can wear sagum , heavy duty robes that are also worn by civilians. According to Roman tradition, soldiers had used togas to fight, binding them with what was known as "Gabine won"; but in the middle of the Republican era, this was only used for sacrificial ceremonies and official declarations of war. After that, the residents used togas only for official occasions. Cicero's "sagum-wearing" soldier versus civilian "toga-wearing" is a rhetorical and literary allusion, referring to the expected transition from military power to peace, civil authority. While on duty in the city, Praetorian guards hid their weapons under their "civil" white togas.
The sagum ordinary warrior is distinguished from the highest-ranking commander, who wears a larger red-purple robe, paludamentum . The color of the ranker sagum is uncertain. Roman military clothing may be less uniform and more adaptive to local conditions and supplies than suggested by idealized portrayals in contemporary literature, sculptures and monuments. However, the Roman retribution overseas should represent Rome in its purest form; Provinsis should adopt Roman methods, not otherwise . Even when foreign clothes - like trousers - prove to be more practical than standard problems, soldiers and commanders who use them are viewed with disgust and alarm by their more conservative counterparts, for destroying the Roman army of virtus by " indigenous." ".
In the Mediterranean climate, soldiers usually wear "open" boots ( caligae ). In a colder and wetter climate, the attached "sling shoe" is preferred. Some Vindolanda tablets mention the delivery of clothing - including robes, socks, and warm clothes - by families to their families, serving on the northern border of Brittania.
During the early and middle centuries era, their conscripts and military officers were expected to provide or pay for all their personal equipment. From the end of the republic and beyond, they are paid professionals, and buy their own clothing from legion stores, quartermasters or civilian contractors. Military needs are prioritized. Clothing is expensive to start, and military demand is high; this inevitably raises prices, and the cost of regular warrior clothes can be more than a third of its annual salary. In the rampant inflation of the Imperial era, when the currency and salaries were lowered, the military salary deductions for clothing and other staple foods were replaced with payments in kind, so that ordinary soldiers dressed fairly but with little money for their dependents, or eventually retired.
Office and religious ceremony
Most priests are reserved for high status, Roman citizens, usually judges or former magistrates. The most traditional religious rituals require the pastor to wear the praetexta toga, in a manner described as capitale velato (closed head [with a toga fold]) while performing augury , reading prayers or watching sacrifices. Where the rite prescribes the free use of both arms, the pastor may use Gabine's cinctus ("Gabine cinch") to bind back the crease of the toga inconvenience.
The Vestal Virgins took care of the sacred fire of Rome, at the temple of Vesta, and prepared an important sacrificial material used by a different cult from the Roman state. They are highly respected, and have unique rights and privileges; their people are sacred and inviolable. Their presence is required at various ceremonies and religious and civil ceremonies. Their costumes are predominantly white, wool, and have the same elements as the high-roman wedding dresses. They wore white, infula priests, white suffibulum and white pallas, with red ribbons to symbolize their devotion to the sacred fire of Vesta, and the white bands as a sign of their purity.
The priesthood of Flamen is dedicated to various gods from the Roman state. They wear dense round caps ( Apex ) on top of it with olive olive spikes; and laena , a semi-circular, long robe tied to the shoulders with a brooch or fibula. Their senior is Flamen dialect, who is Jupiter's high priest and married to Flamenica dialis. He is not allowed to divorce, leave town, ride horses, touch iron, or see corpses. Laena is considered to precede the toga. Twelve Salii ("jumping priests" from Mars) was a patriot young man, who was processed through the city in the form of a war dance during the Mars festival, singing Carmen Saliare. They also wore apex, but otherwise dressed as ancient warriors, in embroidery tunics and breastplate. Each brings a sword, wearing a short red military robot ( paludamentum) and ritually hits a bronze shield, the original one is said to have fallen from heaven.
Rome recruited many non-native gods, cult and priesthood as patrons and allies of the country. Aesculapius, Apollo, Ceres, and Proserpina are worshiped using the so-called "Greek Rite", which uses the clothes of the Greek priest, or Roman version. The priest leads in Greek mode, with his head naked or circled.
In 204 BC, the priest Galli was taken to Rome from Phrygia, to serve "Trojan", Mother of Goddess Cybele, and his wife, Attis, on behalf of the Roman state. They are legally protected but flamboyant "un-Roman". They were eunuchs, and were told about money; Their public rituals are wild, frenzied and bloody, and their priest's clothing is "female". They wore long yellow silk robes, luxury jewelery, perfume and make-up, and turbans or exotic versions of "phrygian" hats on bleached long hairs.
Roman Apparel Late Antiquity (after 284 M)
The Roman outfit experienced a very gradual change from the late Republican to the end of the Western empire, 600 years later. In part, this reflects the imperial expansion of Rome, and the adoption of the provincial dress is regarded as exoticly interesting, or just more practical than the forms of traditional dress. The change in fashion also reflects the increasing dominance of military elites within the government, and an appropriate reduction in the value and status of the traditional civil office and rank. In the later kingdom after Diocletian's reform, the clothing worn by soldiers and non-military government officials became highly ornamented, with woven or ornament, clavi, and round bundles, orbiculi, > added to tunics and robes. These decorative elements usually consist of geometric patterns and stylish plant motifs, but can include human or animal figures. The use of silk also increased steadily and most of the court people in the late days wore a complicated silk robe. The heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats and soldiers, who exposed the general militarization of the final Roman government. Trousers - regarded as barbaric clothing worn by Germans and Persians - attained only limited popularity in the last days of the empire, and considered by the conservatives as a sign of cultural deterioration. The toga, traditionally regarded as a sign of true Romanity, is never popular or practical. Most likely, official replacement in the East by more convenient pallium and paenula is only recognized not used. In the early Middle Ages Europe, kings and nobles dressed as the late Roman generals they tried to imitate, unlike the old senator tradition of senators.
Fabrics
Animal fiber
Wool
Wool is the most commonly used fiber in Roman clothing. Tarentum sheep are famous for their wool quality, although the Romans never stop trying to optimize the quality of wool through cross-breeding. Miletus in Asia Minor and the province of Gallia Belgica are also renowned for the quality of their wool exports, the latter producing heavy coarse wool suitable for winter. For most clothing, white wool is preferred; then it can be bleached further, or dyed. The natural dark wool is used for the pulla and work clothes are worn with dirt and stains.
In the provinces, private landowners and the State have large land for grazing, where large numbers of sheep are raised and shaved. Their wools are processed and woven in a special factory. Britannia is famous for its wool products, which include the type of duffel jacket ( Birrus Brittanicus) , fine carpets, and upholstery for army helmets.
Silk
Silk from China was imported in significant amounts at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. It was bought in a raw state by Roman merchants in Carthaginian ports in Tire and Beirut, then woven and dyed. As Roman weaving techniques evolve, silk threads are used to create geometric or free-made damasks, tabbies and rugs. Some of these silk fabrics are very fine - about 50 or more threads per centimeter. This highly decorative and expensive fabric production seems to be a specialty of weavers in the eastern Roman province, where the earliest Roman horizontal looms were developed.
Luxury laws and price controls are passed to limit the purchase and use of silk. At the beginning of the Senate Empire passed a law prohibiting the use of sutra by men because it is seen as feminine but there is also connotation of immorality or impolite attachment to women who wear material, as illustrated by Seneca the Elder:
"I can see the silk garments, if the material that does not hide the body, or even the politeness of a person, can be called a garment... Woe rough worker so the adulterer can be seen through her thin dress, so that her husband has no acquaintance more than an outsider or a stranger with body of his wife. "(Declamations Vol 1)
Emperor Aurelian is said to have banned his wife from buying Tyrian purple robe. The Augusta Historia claims that Emperor Elagabalus was the first Romans to wear pure silk garments ( holoserica ) that contradict the usual mixture of silk/cotton ( subserica ); this is presented as further evidence of its notorious decadence. In addition to the moral dimension, Roman imports and expenditures on silk represented a significant and contractive depreciation on the gold and silver of the Roman currency, for the benefit of foreign merchants and losses to the empire. Diocletian's Decree on Maximum Price 301 AD sets the price of a kilo of raw silk with 4,000 gold coins.
Wild silk, cocoons collected from the wild after the insects eat their way out, also known; with shorter lengths shorter, the fibers must be spun into a rather thicker yarn than the cultivated variety. A rare, luxurious fabric with a beautiful gold sheen, known as sea silk, is made of long silk filament or byssus produced by Pinna nobilis , a large Mediterranean shell.
Plant fibers
Linen
Pliny the Elder describes the linen production of hemp and hemp. After harvest, the plant stems are raised to loosen the outer layers and internal fibers, stripped, ground and then smoothed. After this, the ingredients are woven. Ramie, like wool, comes in many different levels and special qualities. In Pliny's opinion, the most white (and the best) was imported from Saetje Spain; at twice the price, the strongest and most durable is from Retovium. The most white and soft is produced in Latium, Falerii and Paelignium. Natural linen is a "grayish brown" that fades into white through re-washing and sun exposure. It is not easy to absorb the dyes used at the time, and generally bleached, or used in its raw state.
Other plant fibers
Cotton from India is imported through the same Eastern Mediterranean port that supplies Roman merchants with silk and spices. Raw cotton is sometimes used for padding. After the seeds are removed, the cotton can be spun, then woven into a soft and light cloth suitable for use in summer; cotton is more comfortable than wool, cheaper than silk, and unlike linen, it can be brightly colored; for this reason, cotton and linen are sometimes intertwined to produce a cloth that is vividly colored, soft but strong. High quality fabrics are also woven from nettle sticks; poppy-rod fibers are sometimes intertwined with hemp, to produce a soft, lightweight and glossy cloth. Such a fiber preparation involves techniques similar to those used for linen.
Producing
Ready-made clothing is available for all classes, at a price; the cost of a new cloak for ordinary ordinary people may represent three-fifths of their annual subsistence cost. Clothing is recycled on a social scale, until it falls onto a patchwork; even this is useful, and centonarii ("worker-filler") makes a living by sewing clothes and other items from recycled fabric patches. Owners of farms run by slaves and sheep are told that whenever there is a chance, the slave girl must be really busy in the production of her own woolen fabric; this might be good enough for better slave class or supervisory suits.
Independence in paid outfits. Carding, combing, spinning and weaving wool are part of daily housekeeping for most women. Those with middle or lower income can supplement their personal or family income by spinning and selling yarn, or by weaving cloth for sale. In traditional households, wealthy families, family-wool baskets, spindles and looms are positioned in the semi-public acceptance area ( atrium ), where families and families can demonstrate industry and save them; activities that are largely symbolic and moral for them in their class, rather than practical needs. Augustus was very proud that his wife and daughter had given the best example to other Roman women by spinning and weaving her clothes. High caste brides are expected to make their own wedding clothes, using traditional vertical looms.
Most fabrics and clothing are produced by professionals whose trades, standards and specialties are protected by the guild; this is in turn recognized and regulated by local authorities. The pieces are knitted as close as possible to the desired final shape, with minimum waste, cut and sew afterward. After a woven cloth is removed from the loom, the loose threads are fastened, and left as decorative, twisted, or used edges to add different colored "Etruscan style" borders, such as on the purple-red border of the preaetexta toga , and vertical colored lines of several tunics; a technique known as "weaving tablets". The weaving on the straight and hand-powered loom is a slow process. The earliest evidence for the transition from vertical to more efficient horizontal looms, coming from Egypt, is about 298 AD. Even then, the lack of mechanical help in spinning makes the production of yarn a major obstacle in fabric manufacture.
Color and dye
From the early days of Rome, various colors and colored fabrics would have been available; in the Roman tradition, the first professional lawyers association returned to the time of King Numa. Roman beggars will certainly have access to locally produced plant-based dyes, usually as neighbors on the Italian peninsula, producing a variety of red, yellow, blue, green, and brown; Blacks can be achieved by using iron salt and oak bile. Other dyes, or dyed fabrics, can be obtained by trade, or through experiments. For very few who can afford it, the gold-cloth (lamà ©) is almost certainly available, probably as early as the 7th century BC.
Throughout the Regal, Republican and Imperial era, the most rapid, most expensive and most sought after dyes are imported Tyrian purple, obtained from murex . The variety of decorations varies according to the processing, most desirable being the dark red "dried blood". Purple has an old association with sanity, and with the divine. It is estimated to sanctify and protect those who wear it, and is officially reserved for the border of the praetexta toga, and for purple purple toga picta . The decree for its wider and more relaxed use is not very successful; it is also used by rich women and, somewhat more ugly, by some men. Verres reportedly wore purple pallium at all the party nights, not long before his trial, shame and exile for corruption. For those who can not afford to buy the original purple Tyrian, counterfeit goods are available. The expansion of the trading network during the early Empire era brought the indigo indigo blue to Rome; though desirable and expensive itself, it also serves as the basis for the fake purple Tyrian.
For red, angry is one of the cheapest dyes available. Yellow saffron is highly admired, but expensive. It is a deep yellow-orange, bright and fiery, and is associated with purity and firmness. It is used for flammeum (meaning "colored"), a veil used by Roman brides and Flamenica Dialis, who was still a virgin when married and forbidden to divorce.
Special colors are attributed to the racecourse team and their supporters. The eldest of them is The Reds and the Whites. During the later Empire era, The Blues and Green dominated racecourse and, to some extent, civil and political life in Rome and Constantinople. Although their team and supporters have official recognition, their competition sometimes spills into civil violence and riots, both inside and outside the circus.
Skin and hide
The Romans had two methods of turning animal skin into skin: tanning produces soft and supple skin; Melted alum and salt to produce a soft and pale skin that is ready to absorb the dye. Both of these processes produce a strong and unpleasant odor, so tanners and tawers are usually placed away from downtown. Unprocessed animal skin is supplied directly to the tanner by the butcher, as a by-product of meat production; some are turning to raw leather, which makes the sole of shoes durable. Landowners and livestock breeders, many of whom are elite, draw some of the profits at every step of the process that turn their animals into skins or hide and distribute them through a wide trading network. The Roman military consumed large quantities of leather; for assholes, belts, boots, saddles, harness and work ropes, but mostly for military tents.
Laundering and fulling
Common habits for public baths ensure that most Romans keep their bodies clean, reducing the need to frequently wash clothes and bed linens. However, dirt, spills and coloring are a continuing danger, and most Roma live in apartment blocks that do not have the facilities to wash clothes on the smallest scale. Professional washing ( fullonicae , singular fullonica ) is a very disgusting but important and common feature of any city and city. Small fulling companies can be found in the local market; others operate on an industrial scale, and will require considerable investment of money and energy, especially slaves.
Basic washing and compacting techniques are simple, and labor-intensive. Clothes are placed in a large tub of old urine, then trampled up nicely by barefooted workers. They are well rinsed, either manually or mechanically squeezed, and scattered over the rattan frame for drying. White skin can be brighter with bleaching with sulfur fumes. Some colors can be returned to brightness by "polishing" or "refinishing" with Cimolian earth. Others are less color-fast, and will require separate washing. In companies with the best equipment, the clothes are finer under pressure, using screw-pressing. Washing and loading punish the fabric, but the purity and cleanliness of the clothing itself is a sign of status. The high-quality woolen caps of the senator class are intensively washed out, snowy white, using the best and most expensive materials. Residents with lower ratings use dull wool togas, cheaper to be washed; for reasons that remain unclear, clothing from different status groups may have been washed separately.
The home front, fullonicae is run by a lower social class prestige, or by freedmen and freedwomen; behind the scenes, their company may be secretly supported by a rich or elite patron, in return for a share of the profits. The Roman elite seemed to have disdained the full professions and washing as noble; though probably no more than they hate all manual trade. The ruler himself seems to regard their professions as honorable and profitable, worthy of celebrations and illustrations in murals and memorials. Paintings of Pompeian murals from dishwashers and fullers at work showcase clothing in a variety of rainbow colors, but not white; Fuller seems to have been greatly appreciated for their ability to wash dyed clothes without losing color, sheen or "brightness", not just bleaching, or bleaching. New fabrics and clothing may also have been washed; the process will partially feel and strengthen the wool fabric.
See also
- Clothing in the ancient world
- Biblical clothing
- Byzantine Dress
- Clothing in ancient Greece
- Ancient Roman military clothing
- Roman jewelry
References
Bibliography
- Braund, Susanna, and Osgood, Josiah, Companions to Persius and Juvenal , Wiley-Blackwell, 2012 ISBNÃ, 978-1-4051-9965-0
- Edmondson, JC and Keith, Alison, Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture , University of Toronto Press, 2008
- Erdkamp, ​​Paul (Editor), Friends for the Roman Army , Blackwell's Companion to the Ancient World, Blackwell Publishing, 2007
- Flohr, Miko, Fullo World ; Working, Economics, and Society in Rome Italy, Oxford University Press, 2013
- Phang, Sar Elise, Roman Military Service: The Ideology of Discipline in the Late and Principal Republics , Cambridge University Press, 2008
- Rodgers, Nigel. Scientific Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire , Lorenz Books, ISBN 978-0-7548-1911-0
- Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, editor, World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Study in Classical Languages ​​, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994,
- Vout, Caroline, "My Toga Myth: Understanding the History of Roman Clothes", Greek & amp; Roma , 43, No. 2 (October, 1996), pp. 204-220. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/gr/43.2.204.
- Whitfield, Susan, "Living Along the Silk Road", Berkeley University of California Press, 1999. ISBNÃ, 0-520-23214-3.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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