Trousers (British English) or pants (first American English) first appeared in the historical record among nomads in Western Europe. Archaeological evidence suggests that both men and women wear pants in that cultural context. However, for much of modern history, the use of trousers is restricted to men. In many areas, this norm is enforced not only by social customs but also by law. However, there are many historical cases of women wearing trousers against these norms, for various reasons, including comfort, freedom of movement, fashion, disguise (especially for runaway slaves), attempts to avoid gender salary gaps, attempts to express transgender identity, and efforts to build a empowered public identity for women. Especially in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, these restricted dressing habits and laws have been dramatically altered, reflecting the increasing acceptance and normalization of practice.
Various US cities, in the 19th and 20th centuries, passed a law prohibiting women from wearing trousers. The representative among these is the law of 1863 authorized by the criminalizing San Francisco Supervisory Council to appear publicly in "clothing that is not of his sex", although a similar law is in Columbus, Ohio (by 1848); Chicago, Illinois (graduated 1851); Houston, Texas (passed 1864); Orlando, Florida (by 1907), and about two dozen other US cities. (The anti-crossdressing law went on well into the 20th century, with Detroit, Michigan and Miami, Florida issuing legislation in the late 1950s, and Cincinnati, Ohio passing in 1974.)
In addition, existing laws such as anti-vagrancy laws are pressed into services to ensure that women will dress according to gender norms at the time. One such example is the 1845 anti-slaying law of New York, which states that "Anyone who, once his face is painted, is discolored, covered or hidden, or otherwise disguised, in a calculated manner to prevent it being identified, will appear on the road anywhere or public highway, or in any field, lots, wood or binding, can be pursued and captured ". This law is used to prosecute women for change, arguing that their clothes outside of gender norms are a "disguise". Boston used the same anti-hygiene law to arrest Emma Snodgrass and Harriet France in 1852. (Snodgrass would be arrested again in Cleveland in 1853, and France would be arrested again in New York in 1856.) France reportedly violated the convention to pursue the opportunity work is open only to men: he claims to the New York Daily Times that he can "earn more wages" dressed as men.
Anti-cruel laws were also used to arrest Jennie Westbrook in New York, in 1882 and 1883. The Westbook case was said at the time to "arouse a deep interest" among the public, since it was understood that he was trying to "escape from slavery [ which has been subject to social law. "Like Harriet French in Boston, West identifies job opportunities as an excuse for cross-dressing:" The reason is he can earn $ 20 a week in his disguise, while as a 'salesperson' in a fashionable shop, his pay only one-third the amount. "
Video Women and trousers
Early dress reform
In 1851, an early women's rights advocate, Elizabeth Smith Miller introduced Amelia Bloomer to a garment that was originally known as "Turkish underwear," featuring knee-length skirts on Turkish-style pantaloons, Bloomer came to advocate and promote dresses, including instructions to create it, in The Lily, a newspaper dedicated to the "Emancipation of Women from Intemperance, Injustice, Prejudice, and Bigotry." It inspired the penchant for the dress, which came to be known as pof.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Lucy Stone, another early supporter of women's rights, also adopted this style of dress in the 1850s, referring to it as a "freedom dress".
At the same time, some female workers, especially eyebrow women working in coal holes in the Wigan area, began wearing trousers under short skirts as their practical uniform components. This attracted public attention, and various photographers produced an unconventional tape of women's clothing through the mid to late 19th century.
Other women who advocate the public for clothing reform are Mary Edwards Walker, abolitionist surgeon and Civil War. Walker, who was wearing a bloomer while working in a military hospital, wrote in 1871 that women's clothing should "protect the person, and allow freedom of movement and circulation, and not make the wearer slave for it". Walker openly wore male trousers, and was arrested several times for wearing men's clothing (his earliest arrest was in 1866, in New York, and his final arrest was in 1913, in Chicago, at the age of 80).
Maps Women and trousers
Change the norm
20th century
United States and Europe
1900s-1920s
The latest version of the big mistake, for athletic use, was introduced in the 1890s when women's bicycles became fashionable. Because activities such as tennis, cycling, and horseback became more popular by the turn of the century, women switched to pants or underpants to provide comfort and freedom of movement in this activity, and some laws made it easy to wear women's trousers so far. activities. Women increasingly wore trousers as casual wear in the 1920s and 30s, and working women, including female pilots, often wore trousers.
Arrest for cross-dressing does not always stop during this time. For example, in 1919, the labor leader Luisa Capetillo became the first woman in Puerto Rico to wear trousers in public. Capetillo was sent to jail for being considered a crime in Puerto Rico, although the judge later revoked the suit against him.
1930s
Actress Marlene Dietrich and Katharine Hepburn were often photographed with trousers in the 1930s; The famous Dietrich appeared in a black tuxedo and fedora matching at the premiere of 1932 from The Sign of the Cross.
Eleanor Roosevelt became the first First Lady to appear in the pants on formal function, leading Easter Egg Roll in 1933 in horseback pants, the consequences of not having time to change after the morning journey. However, he seems to embrace unusual circumstances, posing for a photo in his pants at South Portico of the White House.
Vogue featured the first female spread wearing trousers in 1939.
1940s & amp; 1950s
During World War II, women working in the war-wearing industry wore their husband's trousers (customized), and in post-war trousers still used for gardening, socializing, and other recreational activities.
Similarly, in Britain during the Second World War, due to rationing of clothing, many women were dressed in their husbands 'husbands' clothing to work while their husbands were in the armed forces. This is partly because they are seen as work clothes, and partly to allow women to keep their clothing allowances for other uses. When the men's outfits were exhausted, replacement was needed, so in the summer of 1944 it was reported that the sale of women's trousers was five times more than the previous year.
In 1959, the Government Code Section 12947.5 (part of the California Fair Justice and Housing Act, passed in California) clearly protects the right to wear pants (American English for trousers). Thus, the standard FEHA complaint discrimination form now includes an option to "deny the right to wear pants."
1960s & amp; 1970s
In the 1960s, AndrÃÆ'Â © CourrÃÆ'¨ges introduced jeans for women, leading to designer jeans. And in 1966, Yves Saint Laurent introduced the Le Smoking tuxedo, a tuxedo woman intended for official occasions, famously photographed by Helmut Newton in a way that emphasizes lesbian elegance and lesbian lesbian wearers.
In 1969, Rep. Charlotte Reid (R-Ill.) Becomes the first woman to wear trousers in the US Congress.
Also in 1969, Barbra Streisand became the first woman to attend an Oscar in his pants, receiving an award for his role in the Funny Girl wearing a suit designed by Arnold Scaasi.
In 1972, Pat Nixon was the first American First Lady to model pants in a national magazine. However, First Ladies has been seen wearing pants before, including Lou Hoover (personally photographed wearing riding pants at Camp Rapidan's president's retreat) and Jackie Kennedy (photographed wearing trousers and sweaters at Cape Cod in 1960 and wearing palazzo pants in Italy in 1962). ).
In 1972, the 1972 Education Amendment was adopted in the United States, which, as part of the non-discriminatory IX provisions, states that clothing can not be requested by girls. Dress code changed in public schools across the United States.
In the 1970s, trousers became very fashionable for women. Jane Fonda, Diana Ross, Katharine Hepburn, Tatum O'Neal, and Diane Keaton all helped to popularize the wearing of pants, appearing in high profile awards ceremonies wearing underwear or ensemble pants; Tatum O'Neal received an Oscar at the age of 10 when wearing a tuxedo.
1980s & amp; 1990s
In 1989, a California state senator, Rebecca Morgan became the first woman to wear trousers in the US state senate.
Hillary Clinton was the first woman to wear long pants in the official US Lady Lady portrait.
Women were not allowed to wear trousers on the floor of the US Senate until 1993. In 1993, Senators Barbara Mikulski and Carol Moseley Braun wore trousers to the floor for breaking the rules, and female support staff soon followed, with the rules changed later. that year by Senate Sergeant-in-Arms Martha Pope to allow women to wear trousers on the floor as long as they also wear jackets.
Africa
In 1994, Malawian women were legitimately permitted to wear trousers under the authority of the Kamuzu President Banda, initially banned by law introduced in 1965.
21st century
International norm
Since 2004, the International Skating Union has allowed women to wear trousers rather than skirts in the competition if they so wish.
In 2013, a regulation requiring women in Paris, France to seek permission from the city authorities before "dressing like a man", including wearing trousers (with the exception of "holding a bicycle handlebars or horse control") has been declared formally revoked by Minister of Rights French woman, Najat Vallaud-Belkacem. The law was originally intended to prevent women from wearing fashionable pantaloons with Parisian rebels in the French Revolution.
Also in 2013, the Turkish parliament ended the ban on female parliamentarians wearing trousers in his council.
In 2014, an Indian family court in Mumbai decided that a husband objected to his wife wearing kurta and jeans and forced her to wear sari as a result of her husband's cruelty and could be the reason for divorce. Therefore, the wife is granted divorce on the basis of atrocities as defined in section 27 (1) (d) of the Special Marriage Law, 1954.
Workplace norms
Women were not allowed to wear trousers on the floor of the US Senate until 1993. In 1993, Senators Barbara Mikulski and Carol Moseley Braun wore trousers to the floor for breaking the rules, and female support staff soon followed, with the rules changed later. that year by Senate Sergeant-in-Arms Martha Pope to allow women to wear trousers on the floor as long as they also wear jackets.
In 2012 Canadian Royal Police Mounting began allowing women to wear trousers and boots in their official uniforms.
Until 2016 some female crew members on British Airways were required to wear British Airways "ambassador" uniforms, which did not traditionally include trousers.
In 2017, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints announces that female servants may wear "professional trousers and long dresses" at work; previous dresses and skirts have been required.
School norm
Most schools in the UK allow female students to wear trousers, but many girls still wear skirts in primary and secondary schools, even when the choice of trousers is given. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, many schools began to change their uniform rules to allow trousers for women in the midst of opposition to the skirt's only policy - the most publicized perhaps Jo Hale vs. Whickam Comprehensive in 2000. Although it is generally accepted that girls can wear trousers to school, no test cases are known to be brought to justice, making legal positions uncertain requiring skirts as part of a women's uniform. The rules are still enforced in many schools, especially independent and selective state schools. In fact, government guidance explicitly states the decision to allow girls to wear trousers is with certain schools.
The remaining restrictions
Religious ban
There are a number of religions that prohibit women from expressing their feet, requiring all women and often young girls not to wear long pants but long dresses. In contrast, most Sikhs often believe that wearing trousers is preferred for Sikh women to maintain modesty.
Although many contemporary Mennonites have no dress code, among traditional, conservative Mennonites, sometimes referred to as the "Old Order Mennonites", long skirts or dresses that cover most of the legs are necessary. They also wear dresses and skirts because they believe men and women should be distinguished from each other. "Deuteronomy 22: 5" The woman will not wear what offends a human being, and no one will wear women's clothes, for all who do them are abhorrent to the Lord your God. " (KJV) Conservative conferences usually require women to wear special clothing. This is usually in the style of a cape dress, with a double cover or "headland". Most non-conservative conferences allow the use of trousers by women.
Pentecostal women usually wear skirts because of the Old Testament Bible command that women should not wear men's clothes; this is mandatory in some Pentecostal churches of unity (at the discretion of each minister).
Many Fundamental Independent Baptist churches, colleges and universities prohibit women from wearing trousers. For example, in Pensacola Christian College, female students may only wear trousers or shorts for "recreational purposes" only. They are also required to wear skirts or dresses until 17:00 on weekdays.
In Orthodox Jewish belief, the space between the feet of the woman is considered a private area, and therefore, must be covered by clothing. However, in other cultures wearing Biblical men's clothing is prohibited under the prohibition of Lo Silbash ("A woman will not wear what is related to man", Deuteronomy 22: 5). In some Jewish communities, such as Jews from Arab countries and the modern Orthodox community, it is reasoned that trousers provide an extra courtesy form.
On November 13, 866, Pope Nicholas I wrote to King Boris I of Bulgaria: "Whether you or your woman wear or not wear trousers does not hinder your salvation or lead to the improvement of your virtues" (sive vos, sive feminae vestrae, sive deponatis, sive induatis femoralia, nec saluti officit, nec ad virtutum vestrarum profiling incrementum - patrologia latina, cXIX, 1002). Several members of the Society of Saint Pius X have spoken about the preference of women wearing skirts rather than trousers. The Cardinal Siri letter has also been cited as a justification for women wearing skirts and dresses. In addition, St. Thomas Aquinas, the principal theologian of the Church, also teaches that "outward clothing must be consistent with personal possessions, in accordance with common practice, and therefore it is sinful for a woman to wear men's clothes, or vice versa, firmly forbidden in the Law (Deuteronomy 22)... "
In 2012 and 2013, several Mormon women participate in "Wear Pants to Church Day", where they wear trousers to church instead of traditional clothes to encourage gender equality in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. More than a thousand women participate in this year 2012.
Dancing
Many forms of dancing require women to wear skirts or dresses, either by convention or competition rules. In Scottish highland dances for example, women do not wear trews, but instead wear skirts or dresses including Aboyne dress (for national dance) or kilt-based clothing for Highland dance. However, tartan trews can be worn by women in the United States.
Sudan
In Sudan, Article 152 of the Memorandum to the Criminal Code of 1991 prohibits the use of "indecent clothing" in public. This law has been used to arrest and prosecute women wearing trousers. Thirteen women including journalist Lubna al-Hussein were arrested in Khartoum in July 2009 for wearing trousers; ten women pleaded guilty and flogged with ten lashes and a fine of 250 pounds each Sudan. Lubna al-Hussein considers himself a good Muslim and insists "Islam does not say whether a woman can wear trousers or not, I am not afraid of being whipped, it does not hurt, but it is insulting." He was eventually found guilty and fined the equivalent of $ 200 rather than be caned.
Trousers and sexual violence
In Rome in 1992, a 45-year-old driving instructor was accused of rape. When he took an 18-year-old girl for his first driving lesson, he allegedly raped her for an hour, then told him that if he told anyone he would kill him. Later that night he told his parents and his parents agreed to help the press. While the alleged rapist was sentenced and sentenced, the Italian Supreme Court overturned the sentence in 1998 because the victim was wearing tight jeans. It is said that he must always have to help his assailant take off his jeans, thus making consensual action ("because the victim is wearing very tight jeans, he must help her remove it... and by removing the jeans... it is no longer rape but consensual sex"). The Supreme Court of Italy declared in its decision "it is a fact of common experience that it is almost impossible to take off tight jeans even partially without the active collaboration of the person who wears them." This ruling sparked widespread feminist protests. A day after the ruling, women in the Italian Parliament protested wearing jeans and holding banners reading "Jeans: An Alibi for Rape." As a sign of support, the Senate and the California Assembly follow. Soon Patricia Giggans, Executive Director of the Los Angeles Commission on the Attacks on Women (now Violent of Violence) made Denim Day an annual event. In 2011 at least 20 US states officially recognize Denim Day in April. Wearing jeans on this day has become an international symbol of protest against the wrong and destructive attitude about sexual assault. In 2008, the Supreme Court of Italy has canceled their findings, and no more "denim" defense for rape allegations.
See also
- Pof (clothing)
- Victorian clothing reform
- Skirt guy
- Sportswear
References
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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